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��ࡱ�>�� u �r�eebjbj�n�n2��a��aw] ��""��8�d]�>qlyyyyy��p�p�p�p�p�p�p$�r�`u<�p��p��yy4�p��y�y�p��p��y��exo��(��pq0>q��u�f�u��/�u�mm<��p�p��>q��u��"qs: world development volume 165, issue 5, may 2023 1. title: with and beyond sustainability certification: exploring inclusive business and solidarity economy strategies in peru and switzerland authors: christoph oberlack, trent blare, luca zambrino, samuel bruelisauer, ... marleni ram�rez abstract: certification of sustainability standards is an important governance strategy aimed at enhancing the human well-being outcomes of agri-food value chains. while the impacts of certification on well-being are positive for some farmers under certain conditions, they are insignificant or adverse for others. many barriers can impede positive impacts of certification on well-being. alternative or complementary strategies such as inclusive business and solidarity economy may challenge these barriers. however, since certification, inclusive business and solidarity economy strategies are studied in isolation, their precise similarities and differences, their interplay and their relative efficacy and limitations remain elusive. therefore, this paper explores to what extent and how inclusive business and solidarity economy strategies may overcome the persistent governance and economic barriers that limit well-being impacts of certification. we explore four purposively selected cases of inclusive business and solidarity economy strategies from the cacao value chains connecting peru and switzerland. results show that value chain actors combine different specific elements of the three strategies (certification, inclusiveness and solidarity) into portfolios of instruments, which reflect their value chain role and organizational missions. these instrument portfolios may address some of the barriers of certification schemes, but they come with their own challenges and limitations. we conclude that promising future research may use comparative research designs to disentangle specific instruments of inclusiveness, solidarity, and certification; to build typologies of instrument portfolios; to understand their interaction with systemic change in markets and land-use systems; and to specify the conditions under which value chain actors can use specific instruments to improve well-being outcomes of agri-food value chains. 2. title: effects of education on political engagement in rural burkina faso authors: elodie djema�, michael kevane abstract: many african countries are both consolidating their democratic institutions and continuing to expand mass primary schooling. in this context, citizens may be interested in the broad general effect of education on political engagement. recent social science work estimating this effect has not arrived at consensus, with researchers suggesting the relationship may be context dependent, and could vary from positive to negative. we apply an instrumental variable (iv) approach, using afrobarometer surveys in burkina faso over the 2008�2019 period, merged with data on the timing of school establishment at the village level. individual schooling attainment is instrumented by whether a school was established in the village of residence when the person was seven years old. the data is finer than recent papers that estimate the relationship using national-level quasi-experiments where education access changed across birth cohorts or where an indirect proxy measure of education access varied across regions and birth cohorts. we find that the relationship appears to differ by gender: men exhibit a substantial negative effect of education on engagement, while women exhibit no sizable relationship. the null effect for women may be due to low power, as there is less variation in education outcomes for women in rural areas. the results suggest that gender may be an important mediator of the direction and magnitude of the complex relationship between education and political engagement in polities with low overall levels of schooling. 3. title: targeting hunger or votes? the political economy of humanitarian transfers in malawi authors: jan duchoslav, edwin kenamu, jack thunde abstract: do electoral considerations play a role in the targeting of humanitarian transfers? we analyze the targeting of direct cash and food transfers distributed in malawi in response to an exceptionally poor harvest following a late and erratic rainy season of 2015/16. combining household survey data on transfers with a remotely sensed measure of drought and with the results of the 2014 and 2019 parliamentary elections, we show that transfers were disproportionately targeted at marginal constituencies. rather than distributing the transfers based solely on need or mobilizing its tribal base, the government attempted to persuade swing voters to support its candidates in the next elections. we find no evidence that this strategy was successful at increasing the vote of ruling party candidates in subsequent elections. 4. title: a food insecurity kuznets curve? authors: dennis wesselbaum, michael d. smith, christopher b. barrett, anaka aiyar abstract: advances in food security proceed unevenly within and across nations. a striking pattern emerges from analysis of >560,000 individual responses to the first globally comparable, nationally representative, repeated food insecurity survey, which is statistically representative of >96 % of the world�s population. we find the relationship between the prevalence of food insecurity in a country and intranational, interpersonal inequality in food insecurity follows a strong inverse-u shape, i.e., a kuznets curve. the relationship is stable over time and across relevant inequality measures and estimation methods. this finding can help guide the implementation of safety nets and social protection programs to achieve the un�s sustainable development goal 2 and to satisfy the human right enshrined in article 25 of the 1948 universal declaration of human rights. 5. title: blessed are the peacemakers: the future burden of intrastate conflict on poverty authors: jonathan d. moyer abstract: intrastate conflict generally undermines human development but its effect on global poverty across different income thresholds remains poorly understood. this paper analyzes how many people will live in poverty due to intrastate civil conflict in 2030, 2050, and 2070 using the international futures model and shared socioeconomic pathways, forecasting 12 scenarios for 179 countries. a baseline conflict scenario leads to an additional 148.2 million (range: 50.7 to 186.0 million) people living in extreme poverty (<$1.90 per day) due to conflict by 2030 compared with a scenario where conflict is eliminated starting in 2022. these conflict-attributable poor represent 20.1% of the population in extreme poverty at that time, with the majority living in south asia followed by africa. by 2050 the population living in conflict-attributable poverty increases to 164.9 million (range: 4.4 to 376.5 million), representing 32.7% of the total extremely poor population at that time with the majority living in africa. while future conflict will be responsible for hundreds of millions of people living in poverty, its elimination is not a panacea for achieving development targets: even in a scenario with no intrastate conflict from 2022 to 2030 the population living in extreme poverty is projected to be 6.9%, well above the target threshold of 3% for achieving the first sustainable development goal. 6. title: the poverty effect of democratization authors: christoph d�rffel, andreas freytag abstract: in this paper we examine the interrelatedness between regime types of democracy and non-democracy and poverty reduction. the liberal international order and democratic principles have been challenged by the populace�s general discontent in recent years, while the reduction of poverty is a central goal of the global development agenda as embodied by the sustainable development goals. democracies could promote poverty reduction by encouraging redistribution, lifting barriers for poor people, or giving better access to the institutions of society. democracies might hinder poverty reduction if they are captured by elites or become dysfunctional in general. our data cover around 140 countries and a period from 1980�2018. we use a mix of methods to address endogeneity concerns. in dynamic panel estimates that control for past influences of poverty, gdp and inequality we find no significant impact of democratization � measured mainly by electoral democracy � on poverty rates. in more flexible and causal treatment effects estimates we find democratization reduces poverty rates by about 11�14% in the first five years after democratization on a 95% significance level and about 20% 10�14 years after democratization on a 90% significance level. although we find mixed results, we are still confident that democratic political institutions matter greatly, and societies are better off when the political systems are more inclusive. the fact that our results do not find clear support for this suggest that electoral democracy � without further aspects considering the level of democracy � does not have a clear-cut effect on poverty. 7. title: the hierarchy of needs empirical examination of maslow�s theory and lessons for development authors: mariano rojas, alfonso m�ndez, karen watkins-fassler abstract: maslow�s needs theory proposes a hierarchy of needs and argues for their sequential satisfaction. the theory has been very influential in development studies, in the establishment of development priorities, in the design of policies and social programs, and in the role economic growth plays as central development instrument. this paper relies on a large and representative database from mexico to empirically test four assumptions which are commonly associated to maslow�s theory: that needs are satisfied sequentially, that income is a relevant resource in the satisfaction of relevant needs, that the hierarchy of needs is associated to their well-being contribution, and that maslow�s proposed sequential path in the satisfaction of needs -beginning with the satisfaction of physiological ones and ending with the satisfaction of self-actualization ones- is the best possible one. data on satisfaction of needs is used to address the first two assumptions, while a subjective well-being approach is used to deal with the last two assumptions. the four assumptions are rejected. in consequence, it is possible to think about strategies in the satisfaction of needs that do not follow the sequential satisfaction proposed by maslow and which question the hierarchical order he proposed. the paper highlights the relevance of the needs of love and belonging and of esteem, and it argues for an integrated view of human beings and of their needs, as well as for following a balanced strategy in their satisfaction. implications for development studies and for the design of sustainable development strategies and social programs are discussed. 8. title: disaster mortalities and the sendai framework target a: insights from zimbabwe authors: emmanuel mavhura, komal raj aryal abstract: in many parts of the world, human losses to disasters have been on the increase during the past three decades. this has slowed down the human development process. in an attempt to curb disaster impact, the world adopted an action-oriented sendai framework for disaster risk reduction (sfdrr) in 2015. target a of the sfdrr seeks to substantially reduce disaster mortalities by 2030. this study contributes to the sfdrr by bringing in disaster-disaggregated mortality data to assess the progress of zimbabwe�s commitment in attaining target a. the data came from the zimbabwe national statistics agency, the traffic safety council of zimbabwe, the department of civil protection and the em-dat database. to analyse the data, we conducted 3-year and 5-year moving averages for a period of thirty years to frame a holistic picture of the disaster mortalities in zimbabwe. we also applied the methodology developed by the open-ended intergovernmental expert working group to determine the mortality rates for the overall and individual disaster type. results clearly showed that zimbabwe is making progress in reducing disaster mortalities despite a few spikes across its range of disasters. major deaths were caused by drought, diarrhoea, malaria and tropical cyclones. therefore, zimbabwe needs to invest in drought monitoring and mitigation, cyclone forecasting and early warnings, and the surveillance and prevention of diarrhoeal diseases and malaria in order to substantially reduce the disaster mortality by the year 2030. 9. title: community matters: heterogeneous impacts of a sanitation intervention authors: laura abramovsky, britta augsburg, melanie l�hrmann, francisco oteiza, juan pablo rud abstract: sanitation is at the heart of public health policies in most of the developing world, where around 85% of the population still lack access to safe sanitation. we study the effectiveness of a widely adopted participatory community-level information intervention aimed at improving sanitation. results from a randomized controlled trial, implemented at scale in rural nigeria, reveal stark heterogeneity in impacts: the intervention has immediate, strong and lasting effects on sanitation practices in less wealthy communities, realized through increased sanitation investments. in contrast, we find no evidence of impacts among wealthier communities. this suggests that a targeted implementation of clts may increase its effectiveness in improving sanitation. our findings can be replicated in other contexts, using microdata from evaluations of similar interventions. 10. title: multidimensional forests: complexity of forest-based values and livelihoods across amazonian socio-cultural and geopolitical contexts authors: marina londres, marianne schmink, jan b�rner, amy e. duchelle, gabriel ponzoni frey abstract: research on the contribution of forests to local livelihoods has so far had a strong focus on quantifying the monetary value of forest-derived products and services. in this paper, we move beyond monetary valuation and integrate the less tangible and sometimes culturally complex dimensions through which forests support local livelihoods. we look at four local contexts in the brazilian, bolivian and ecuadorian amazon, which differ markedly in terms of their biophysical, sociocultural and geopolitical settings. combining economic and anthropological data, we used quantitative and qualitative methods, and measures of the ecological impacts of local forest uses. quantitative analyses drew on datasets from 48 communities, and 510 households, while the qualitative analyses relied on semi-structured interviews with 78 families in 22 communities. forest-based livelihoods exhibited complex portfolios, diversified production systems, seasonal variation of activities, and different specialization strategies. beyond a source of subsistence and cash incomes, forests were locally valued by people across all sites in terms of identities, worldviews, territorial attachment, governance, and conservation. populations with a longer history of interactions with the environment displayed more complex forest-related cultural systems, but even among people who had migrated into the forest in a more recent historical period, forest-based self-cultural identification was evident. at all sites, forests were unanimously recognized as critical to people�s health and wellbeing, despite substantial differences in local histories, policy and market environments. the findings underscore the persistent importance of non-economic values of forests as both indigenous and non-indigenous groups constantly adapt their forest and land use practices based on transcultural exchange and changing conditions. a focus on economic value as the rationale for forest conservation disregards the striking resilience of cultural values in promoting forest conservation and use by diverse local and indigenous communities, especially when supported by favorable policies and markets. 11. title: productivity gaps at formal and informal microfirms authors: luis hernando gutierrez, paul rodriguez-lesmes abstract: although evidence of a productivity gap between formal and informal firms has been observed, this �formality premium� has been less explored for microfirms. the informality of microfirms is a central concern in low- and middle-income countries, leading to a crucial demand for designing economic policies addressing this issue. we fill this void by estimating a productivity premium for the case of colombia, considering two margins of formality for microfirms: extensive, referring to business registration, and intensive, which includes labor regulations. we use a unique longitudinal dataset from the microenterprise survey by the colombian statistics department, which follows approximately 39,000 micro-establishments with up to nine employees during 2012�2016. we utilize the transition into and out of formality to estimate the productivity premium (yearly sales per worker) between informal and formal firms, thereby exploring differences concerning initial productivity. we use a fixed-effects quantile regression to explore differential effects along the productivity distribution. we find evidence of a premium for both the extensive (18%) and intensive margins (7%), a gap that decreases with a firm�s productivity when considering a strict definition of formality. the evidence of these premiums is related to two growth strategies of firms: an increase in capital investments for the extensive margin and an increase in human capital quality for the intensive margin. further, we find the premium is notably wider for young firms (less than three years in the business) relative to the older; and for the least productive �necessity� driven businesses in comparison with the business-driven businesses. we do not find systematic differences according to the gender of the owners. these results are new evidence to support the existence of a premium and the transition into and out of formality for microfirms in middle-income countries. moreover, they suggest that microfirms� formalization and growth policies should be oriented toward promoting and enhancing formality�s benefits. 12. title: fighting against hunger: a country-wide intervention and its impact on birth outcomes authors: francisco beltran-silva abstract: in 2013 the mexican government launched sin hambre (sh), a large-scale food assistance policy, with which to fight hunger, and which the government expressly intended to improve nutrition and access to food. this study applies a difference-in-differences approach using timing and regional variations in exposure to evaluate the impact of sh, particularly on average birthweight. because municipalities were not selected randomly, the approach employs a method proposed by imai et al. (2021) that improves the confidence to satisfy the parallel trend assumption under staggered adoption. findings reveal that exposure to sh leads to, at most, moderate impacts on birthweight across various specifications. 13. title: market concentration, trade exposure, and firm productivity in developing countries: evidence from mexico authors: carlos rodr�guez-castel�n, luis felipe l�pez-calva, oscar barriga-cabanillas abstract: to show how local market concentration affects firm productivity, we exploit a rare database for developing-country standards consisting of five rounds of the mexican manufacturing census and geographically disaggregated data on sectoral exports. our estimates show that a decline by 10 points in the herfindahl-hirschman index, a measure of market concentration, explains an increase by 1 percent in the total factor productivity (tfp) of revenue. we also find that greater exposure to trade offsets and, in most cases, reverses the negative effects of local concentration on productivity. our heterogeneity analysis also shows that informal firms exhibit a higher probability of exiting the market if competitive pressure and exposure to international markets increase and that firms in the southern region of the country would benefit the most from higher competition and exposure to international markets. 14. title: stakeholder perspectives on cocoa�s living income differential and sustainability trade-offs in ghana authors: marshall alhassan adams, sophia carodenuto abstract: policy responses to balance the trade-offs between nature conservation and socioeconomic development have recently come to the fore in ghana � the world�s second largest producer of cocoa. in 2019, the government of ghana introduced the living income differential (lid), which requires buyers to pay an additional us$400 per ton of cocoa on top of the floor price. with low farmer incomes identified as a critical driver of multiple sustainability issues in ghana�s cocoa sector, this differential is meant to be directly transferred to cocoa farmers in response to the persistent challenge of poverty in cocoa farming communities. using the q methodology, we engaged over 50 stakeholders from various levels (international policy experts, cocoa sector stakeholders in ghana, and cocoa farmers) to understand how the lid is perceived, including its potential to transform the rural poverty complex embedded in ghana�s cocoa supply chain. while the lid is lauded for increasing producer price across the board, our findings indicate that the lack of regard for farmer diversity (i.e., tenure rights, sharecroppers, and caretakers), farm size, and land management strategies (agroforestry versus clearing forest to establish farms) risks undermining the ability of this pricing mechanism to reduce farmer poverty. further, the lid is siloed from on-going sustainability governance efforts in the sector, such as zero deforestation cocoa. if the lid is delivered to farmers across the board without any quid pro quo for how cocoa is produced, the policy�s unintended consequences may include increasing deforestation in the short term, while lowering the world market price of cocoa in the long term as cocoa supply increases. we conclude with policy implications on why different perspectives matter in managing sustainability trade-offs in deforestation frontiers. 15. title: are smart cities green? the role of environmental and digital policies for eco-innovation in china authors: despoina filiou, effie kesidou, lichao wu abstract: in this paper, we employ negative binomial and quasi-natural experimental methods (i.e., difference-in-differences and propensity score matching), whereby we examine the joint impact of environmental and digital policies (for designing smart cities) upon the generation of eco-innovations in china. using longitudinal data for the period 2006�2018, we examine the changes in green patents granted: (i) due to the implementation of various levels of stringency of environmental policies across all cities; and (ii) after the introduction of smart city policies in 2012 in china. the prior literature stresses the importance of environmental policies, yet less attention has been paid to digital policies required to drive eco-innovation and their spatial dimension in the context of a developing economy. our results show that, when digital policies (artificial intelligence and internet of things) are implemented in cities that have adopted strict environmental policies, the production of green patents increases. we contribute to debates in the literature of policy mix for sustainability transitions in the context of a developing economy by illustrating the importance of both types of policy for eco-innovation, as they correct two market failures and, more importantly, address the systemic coordination problems that occur during the production of green patents. $%'*-/013<��ʸʩʸ��wobtf9thj�5�ojqj^jo(hd#hd#5�ojqj^jh�"�hu<�5�ojqj^jh�ud5�ojqj^jo(h�"�h�"�o(&h�"�h�"�5�cjojqj^jajo(h@ t5�cjojqj^jajh 2e5�cjojqj^jajhd#5�cjojqj^jaj#hd#hd#5�cjojqj^jaj#h�"�h�"�5�cjojqj^jaj h$-�5�cjojqj^jajo(#hd#hd#5�cjojqj^jaj012�" ��/?@��<��sn�$�$��gd�psgd)w�gd$?�gdto�gd�l$gd%j,gdu<�gd�"�$a$gdt4��! 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